May 28, 2014

1947,Frequency Reuse

Frequency Reuse is a well known concept that has been applied to wireless systems over the past two decades e.g. in GSM systems. As the name suggests Frequency Reuse implies using the same frequencies over different geographical areas. If we have a 25MHz band then we can have 125 GSM channels and 125*8=1000 time multiplexed users in a given geographical area. Now if we want to increase the number of users we would have to reuse the same frequency band in a geographically separated area. The technique usually adopted is to use a fraction of the total frequency band in each cell such that no two neighbor cells use the same frequency. Typically the frequency band is divided into 3 or 7 cells.


The division of the frequency band in to smaller chunks reduces the system capacity e.g. one cell with 25 MHz bandwidth would have much higher capacity then 7 cells having 3.5 MHz each. To overcome this problem a frequency reuse of 1 has been proposed i.e. each cell has the full system bandwidth (nearly). The problem of co-channel interference at the cell boundaries is resolved by dedicating a small chunk of the available spectrum for the cell edges.

In Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR) the cell area is divided into two regions; a central region where all of the frequency band is available and a cell edge area where only a small fraction of the spectrum is available. The spectrum dedicated for the cell edge may also be used in the central region if it is not being used at the cell edge. The lack of spectrum at the cell edge may result in much reduced Shannon Capacity for that region. This is overcome by allocating high power carriers to the users in this region thus improving the SINR and the Shannon Capacity.

频率复用(Frequency Reuse)是BELL LAB于1947年提出的概念,这个概念是蜂窝移动通信的基石。无线通信刚刚出现的时候采用的是大区制,也就是说一个城市只有一个基站,天线架设在很高的塔上,用很大的功率进行发射。后来随着用户数量的增加,大区制出现了信道不够的问题,频率复用技术就是在这种背景下出现的。由于电磁波在空间传播的衰减特性,一个频率在一个区域使用之后,在离这个区域比较远的地方功率已经衰减了很多,干扰降低到可以接受的程度,于是这个频率就可以再用(reuse)一次,这个就是频率复用的概念。“频率复用”是中文的习惯翻译,已经被广泛接受,其实应该翻译为“频率再用”。与大区制相比,频率复用技术成倍地提高了系统容量,后来所有的移动通信都是基于频率复用技术的蜂窝系统。
蜂窝技术的早期,频率复用因子是比较大的。频率复用因子表示一个频率复用簇(Reuse Cluster)当中的频点的数量。复用因子越大,表示复用距离越大。第一代移动通信(AMPS)的复用因子为9~11,第二代移动通信(GSM)的复用因子为4~7。在CDMA技术出现以后,由于CDMA技术的抗干扰的特性,普遍采用了复用因子为1,也称为普遍频率复用(Universal Frequency Reuse)和同频复用。同频复用被认为是CDMA的技术优势,这个观点在三代移动通信(UMTS, CDMA2000)上得到了加强和广泛传播,并以其巨大的认知惯性延续到了后3G, 如Flarion的Flash OFDM系统就采用了快跳频OFDM和同频复用作为基本技术框架
众所周知,OFDM系统将取代CDMA作为后3G系统的多址技术。OFDM的优势在于它克服了CDMA的自干扰特性,可以实现更高的频谱效率。那么,如何设计OFDM的频率复用方案呢? 一个重要的派别认为OFDM应该做到同频复用,比如快跳频技术就是为了实现同频复用而采用的干扰平均化。也有一些学者认为OFDM也是一种频分多址(FDMA),其频率复用因子应该为3或者更大一些以抵抗同频干扰。不过这样一来,频谱效率就会降低,这也是CDMA支持者对OFDM的重点攻击方向。在这种情况下,一部分学者主张采用折中技术:把频谱分成两个部分,一部分频谱用同频复用,一部分频谱采用复用因子为3,这就是reuse partitioning,或者叫部分频率复用技术(Fractional Frequency Reuse).
软频率复用(Soft Frequency Reuse)是传统频率复用(Frequency Reuse)技术的进一步发展。与传统频率复用技术不同的是,在软频率复用技术当中,一个频率在一个小区当中不再定义为用或者不用,而是用发射功率门限的方式定义该频率在多大程度上被使用,系统的等效频率复用因子可以在1到N之间平滑过渡。软频率复用的主要原则是:
1. 可用频带分成N个部分,对于每个小区,一部分作为主载波,其他作为副载波。主载波的功率门限高于副载波;
2. 相邻小区的主载波不重叠;
3. 主载波可用于整个小区,副载波只用于小区内部
4. 通过调整副载波与主载波的功率门限的比值,可以适应负载在小区内部和小区边缘的分布。
可以看到,在软频率复用方案里面,一个频率不再是被定义为用或者不用,而是用功率门限的形势规定了其在多大程度上被使用,复用因子可以在1~3之间平滑过渡,这就是其得名的由来。与FFR相比,软频率复用没有机械地将频谱割裂成两个部分,而是用功率模版规定了其使用程度,因此无论在小区边缘还是在小区内部,都可以获得更大的带宽和频谱效率。软频率复用的另外一个特点是,通过调整副载波与主载波的功率门限的比值,可以适应负载在小区内部和小区边缘的分布,这也是一个崭新的特性,可以进一步提高频谱效率。
软频率复用是Beyond 3G无线通信系统的关键技术,在3GPP LTE, Wimax系统当中得到广泛应用。
软频率复用技术于2005年由华为公司提出[1],Wimax论坛2006年发表的技术白皮书[2]当中描述的“Fractional Frequency Reuse”与软频率复用类似。

May 27, 2014

1930's, the first transatlantic fax services

The 20's and 30's saw the continued advancement and use of the fax machine. In 1922 the first transatlantic fax services were provided by RCA. In 1925 AT&T introduced the wirephoto. RCA followed up with the radiophoto in 1926.
The first major users of fax services were newspapers that transmitted and received photographs from around the world. The next major users were weather services that faxed weather charts around the world. Leading up to World War II, fax services were also used by the military to transmit maps, orders and weather charts.